Programa de Tripulació Comercial
El Programa de Tripulació Comercial és un programa de Vol espacial tripulat operat per NASA, en associació en Boeing i SpaceX. El programa realisa les rotacions d'entre les expedicions de la Estació Espacial Internacional transportant tripulacions a i de l'estació a bordo de la càpsula CST-100 Starliner de Boeing i la Dragon 2 de SpaceX marcant els primers vols orbitales tripulats operats per empreses privades. El programa pretén substituir l'implicació de la NASA en el Programa Soyuz de la Roscosmos del que depenia per a enviar astronautes des de la retirada del Programa del transbordador espacial en 2011. Cada missió en el Programa de Tripulació Comercial enviarà fins a quatre astronautes a la ISS a bordo de qualsevol de les càpsules, en opció d'incloure per a un quint passager. La Dragon 2 es llança a bordo d'un Falcon 9 Block 5 i retorna a la terra caent sobre el Oceà Atlàntic. La Starliner es llança a bordo d'un Atles V N22 i retorna a la Terra utilisant airbags en una de les quatre localisacions dels Estats Units continentals seleccionades. La primera missió operativa de SpaceX dins del programa està fixada per a 2020 mentres que la de Boeing es llançaria en 2021.
El desenroll del Programa de Tripulació Comercial va començar en 2011 a partir d'una modificació del programa Desenrolle de Tripulació Comercial (CCDev), una iniciativa original del Recovery Act que pretenia finançar el desenroll de vàries tecnologies orientades a vols tripulats en el sector privat. A pesar de que la NASA ya havia explorat atres opcions per a les rotacions de tripulació incloent l'Avió Orbital a principis dels 2000 i la nau Orión a finals, la cancelació del Proyecte Constelació i reorientació de l'Orión exclusivament a vols en l'espai profunt varen forçar a la nasa a dirigir-se al sector comercial per a cobrir les rotacions.
Durant els dos anys següents es varen realisar competicions en puges guanyadores de Boeing, Serra Nevada i SpaceX sent Boeing i SpaceX els finalment seleccionats en setembre de 2014 en el descontent de Serra Nevada que va interpondre un recurs sense èxit.
Les primeres missions tripulades del programa es varen planejar per a 2017 pero una série de dificultats de disseny, proves i certificació de les càpsules i vehículs de llançament els varen traslladar a 2020 i 2021. Estos retarts varen forçar a la NASA a comprar assents fins a la Soyuz MS-17 per a compensar. L'últim vol de prova de la Dragon 2 es va llançar en maig de 2020 i el de Starliner està planejat per a 2021 marcant el final de la fase de desenroll per a abdós companyies i el seu pas als vols operacionals.
Antecedents
[editar | editar còdic]En 2004, la Comissió Aldridge – establida per George W. Bush despuix del Accident del transbordador espacial Columbia – va requerir vols espacials tripulats a la Lluna utilisant un Vehícul Tripulat d'Exploració en el seu informe final.[1][2] Despuix d'este informe i seguint l'establiment d'una série de presuposts es va crear el Proyecte Constelació[3] que incloïa un Vehícul tripulat d'exploració renombrado com Orión que eixercitaria tant les rotacions a la ISS com l'objectiu de vols tripulats a la Lluna.[4][5] Orión va deixar obsolet el concepte d'Avió Espacial Orbital,[6][7] específicament dissenyat per a la rotació de tripulació en la ISS.[8]
En 2009, la Comissió Augustine nomenada per Barack Obama va trobar que la finançació i recursos assignats al programa eren insuficients per a la consecució dels objectius sense grans retarts i un aument de fins a US$ 3 mil millons en el presupost.[9]
Açò va dur a la NASA a buscar alternatives al programa.[10] El programa de Constelació va ser oficialment cancelat en 2010,[11] en la NASA traslladant l'Orión per a exploració més allà de la Terra,[12] i colaborant en socis comercials per als vols de rotació a la ISS i atres activitats en la Òrbita terrestre baixa despuix de la retirada del Programa del transbordador espacial en 2011.[13][14] El nou pla eliminaria la dependència de la NASA en el Programa Soyuz per a dur els seus astronautes a la ISS.[15][16]
Desenroll
[editar | editar còdic]- Artícul principal → Desenroll de tripulació comercial.
CCDev
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El presupost de la NASA de 2010 va destinar US$ 1,3 mil millons per a expandir el programa de Desenroll de Tripulació Comercial (CCDev) tres anys més.[11] La primera ronda de finançació havia consistit en una primera ronda de competicions per a finançar tecnologies orientades a tripulació en el sector privat com a part de la Llei de Reinversión i Recuperació d'Estats Units de 2009.[17][18]
La segona ronda de finançació , CCDev 2, es va centrar en propostes capaces de dur i dur astronautes a i des de la Estació Espacial Internacional.[19][20] La competició per la finançació de CCDev 2 va terminar en abril de 2011,[21] en Blue Origin rebent US$22 millons per a desenrollar el seu concepte,[22] SpaceX rebent US$75 millons per a desenrollar una versió per a tripulació de la seua Càrrec Dragon i un Falcon 9 certificat per a dur humans,[23] Serra Nevada rebent US$80 millons per al desenroll de Dream Chaser,[24] i Boeing rebent US$92.3 millons per a desenrollar el CST-100 Starliner.[24]
SpaceX ya havia segut contractada prèviament per la NASA per a realisar vols de reabastecimiento a la ISS com a part del programa Servicis Comercials d'Abastiment (CRS).[25][26]
La tercera ronda de finançació del programa, Capacitat Integrada de Tripulació Comercial (CCiCap),[27] pretenia recolzar financerament el desenroll de les propostes guanyadores durant 21 mesos fins a maig de 2014 en preparació per a poder realisar vols tripulats a la ISS en els pròxims 5 anys.[28][29] A pesar de haver rebut finançació en CCDev 1 i CCDev 2 Blue Origin va decidir no competir en CCiCap i confiar completament en l'inversió privada del seu amo, Jeff Bezos, per a continuar el desenroll del vehícul.[30][31] La competició per la finançació de CCiCap va terminar en agost de 2012 en US$212,5 millons dirigits al Dream Chaser de Serra Nevada, US$440 millons a la Crew Dragon de SpaceX i US$460 millons a la CST-100 Starliner de Boeing.[32][33] El vehícul integrat Liberty, propost per Alliant Techsystems va ser finaliste de la ronda de finançació pero va terminar rebujat per falta de detall en la proposta.[34]
En decembre de 2012, els tres guanyadors del CCiCap varen rebre US$10 millons cada u en el primer de dos "Contractes de Productes de Certificació" (CPC) que permetrien realisar més proves, estàndars i anàlisis de disseny per a complir els requisits de seguritat establits per la NASA en vols tripulats.[15][35][36]
El segon CPC es va materialisar com a Capacitat de Transport de Tripulació Comercial (CCtCap), la fase final del programa CCDev en la que la NASA certificaria a un operador per a realisar vols a i des de la ISS per mig d'una competició oberta. El 22 de giner de 2014 es va terminar el periodo de presentació de propostes. Serra Nevada va anunciar una semana més tarde que un vol orbital de prova de la Dream Chaser utilisant un Atles V finançat de forma privada estava planejat per a l'1 de novembre de 2016.[37][38] El 16 de setembre de 2014, CCtCap va concloure en la Dragon de SpaceX i la Starliner de Boeing rebent US$2,6 mil millons i US$4,2 mil millons respectivament.[39][40] Serra Nevada va presentar un recurs a la Government Accountability Office (GAO) citant "inconsistencias en el procés de selecció".[41][42] Els tribunals varen frenar la decisió de continuar el desenroll de Crew Dragon i Starliner mentres es resolia l'assunt,[43][44] citant problemes per a la continuïtat de les operacions tripulades en la ISS en el cas d'un retart en el programa.[45] El GAO va rebujar el recurs de Serra Nevada en giner de 2015, declarant que les proves recopilades desacreditaven les afirmacions de l'empresa sobre la NASA.[46][47] Despuix de la decisió final sobre el resultat de CCtCap l'empresa va despedir a 90 membres de la plantilla que treballaven en el proyecte i reorientó el vehícul a ser alquilable.[48][49][50] Una variant de càrrega seria desenrollada més vesprada i seleccionada per la NASA per a realisar missions d'abastiment baix el segon contracte de Servicis Comercials d'Abastiment.[51][52]
Despuix de la selecció
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A pesar de que els primers vols del programa devien haver-se llançat a finals de 2017,[53] Boeing va anunciar en maig de 2016 que el seu primer vol seria retardat a 2018 per problemes relacionats en el vehícul de llançament Atles V N22.[54][55] En decembre de 2016, SpaceX va anunciar que el seu primer vol també seria retardat a 2018[56][57] despuix de perdre una de les seues càrregues en una explosió durant les proves del Falcon 9 en la plataforma de llançament.[58]
Tenint en conte que la NASA no disponia de vols més allà de 2018 en el Programa Soyuz i els retarts del programa comercial el GAO va recomanar en febrer de 2017 el desenroll d'un pla per a poder realisar les rotacions de tripulació en cas de futurs retarts.[59][60] Despuix de la resolució de la demanda contra Energia per part de Boeing sobre Siga Launch, Boeing va rebre l'opció d'accedir a cinc assents en vols del programa Soyuz. La NASA va comprar eixos assents a Boeing per a solucionar el problema dels retarts..[61][62]
En agost de 2018 es varen anunciar els astronautes elegits per a pilotar les naus,[63][64][65] i dos mesos més vesprada va fixar les dates de llançament dels vols de demostració per a 2019.[66][67]
La missió no tripulada SpaceX Demo-1 es va llançar el 2 de març de 2019,[68] durant esta la Dragon es va acoplar automàticament a la ISS i va retornar a la terra sis dies despuix del llançament.[69][70] La càpsula usada en la missió va ser destruïda més vesprada per un accident en una prova dels propulsors d'escape en abril de 2019[71][72][73] causant més retarts al llançament dels futurs vols de la Crew Dragon.[74] El vol de prova orbital de Boeing i el vol tripulat de demostració varen ser retardats per segona volta a finals de 2019 per raons no especificades.[75][76][77][78][79]
Boeing va realisar finalment abdós proves no tripulades en novembre i decembre de 2019,[80][81][82] pero abdós varen estar repletes de problemes tècnics com el fallo de desplegament dels paracaigudes en abortar[83] i problemes sérios com els fallos de software que no varen permetre que l'aeronau intentara acoplar-se a la ISS deixant la missió a miges.[84][85] Una segona Prova de Vol Orbital està programada per a finals de 2020 en la que Boeing cobrirà tots els costs.[86][87] En l'incertitut sobre els retarts del programa, la NASA va comprar un assent en la Soyuz MS-17 per a assegurar-se de participar en la Expedició 64 si les missions es retardaren més,[88][89] sense descartar la possibilitat de comprar més assents si fora necessari. La prova d'abortar en vol de SpaceX es va realisar exitosamente en giner de 2020,[90][91][92] quedant solament el vol final de prova tripulat – SpaceX Demo-2 – que va ser llançat en els astronautes Robert L. Behnken i Douglas G. Hurley a bordo en maig de 2020. Despuix dels retarts de Boeing en les diferents proves del vehícul, el vol de prova tripulat de la Starliner durà als astronautes Christopher Ferguson, Mike Fincke, i Nicole Aunapu Mann a la ISS a principis de 2021.[93][94]
Aeronaus
[editar | editar còdic]Erro en la seqüencia d'órdens: no existix el mòdul «Imagen múltiple».
El Programa de Tripulació Comercial utilisa la Crew Dragon i la CST-100 Starliner per a dur i dur astronautes de la ISS.[39][40][95] Abdós aeronaus són càpsules automàtiques que poden ser controlades manualment utilisant pantalles tàctils en cas d'emergència.[16][96] Abdós càpsules disponen d'11 metros cúbics d'espai presurizado per a la tripulació,[97][98] i poden dur fins a sèt passagers cada una encara que la NASA solament enviarà quatre en les missions del programa disponent d'una extensió a cinc.[16] Abdós utilisen el sistema d'acople de la NASA que reemplaça el CBM utilisat per anteriors vehículs comercials de mercaderia com el SpaceX Dragon,[99] i poden permanéixer fins a 210 dies acoplades.[100][101][102] Les càpsules han segut dissenyades per a complir l'estàndart establit per la NASA d'1 oportunitat entre 270 de fallo catastròfic, notablement major que l'1 de 90 establit en el Transbordador Espacial.[16]
La Crew Dragon de SpaceX és una variant de la Dragon 2, una versió millorada respecte a la primera generació.[103][104] Medix 3,7 metros d'ample, 4,4 d'alt sense el compartimento de càrrega i 7,2 metros en ell.[98][16] Mentres que el compartimento de càrrega es destruïx en cada vol, la càpsula està dissenyada per a poder reutilisar-se i la NASA i SpaceX estan considerant que això ocórrega.[105][106] Alternativament, la Crew Dragon es pot usar per a dur càrrega en el segon contracte de Servicis Comercials d'Abastiment podent realisar fins a cinc viages per càpsula.[107] La Crew Dragon pot estar fins a una semana sense acoplar-se a la ISS.[108] Cada càpsula està equipada en un sistema d'escape que consistix en huit propulsors SuperDraco que proporcionen 71000 newtons de força cada u.[103][109][110] Encara que originalment l'objectiu d'eixos propulsors anara realisar aterrisages en terra i estant el primer vehícul de prova equipat per a això,[111][112] estos plans varen ser abandonats en favor del tradicional Amerizaje en el Oceà Atlàntic.[103][16] SpaceX valora cada assent en una Crew Dragon en US$60–67 millons,[113] mentres que l'Oficina de l'Inspector General (OIG) de la NASA estima el valor nominal en US$55 millons.[114][115][116]
LA CST-100 Starliner de Boeing – "CST" sent un acrònim de "Crew Space Transport" (Transport Espacial de Tripulació)– medix 4,6 metros de diàmetro i 5,1 metros d'alt.[96][97][16] El mòdul de tripulació de la Starliner es pot reutilisar fins a dèu voltes mentres que el de servici es destruïx cada vol.[117][16] Els motors que es troben en la Starliner per a les diferents maniobres orbitales són fabricats per Aerojet Rocketdyne.[118] Huit RCS en la nau i 28 en el mòdul de servici proporcionen 380 newtons i 445 newtons cada u respectivament.[119][120] També en el mòdul de servici, 20 motors de Maniobra Orbital i Control de Direcció "Orbital Maneuvering and Attitude Control (OMAC)" fets a mida proporcionen 6,700 newtons d'espente cada u, mentres quatre motors RS-88 proporcionen 178,000 newtons cada u en l'event d'un llançament abortat.[110][121] Durant un vol nominal Starliner pot utilisar el combustible reservat per al sistema d'escape dels seus motors RS-88 en els OMAC per a la maniobra d'inserció orbital despuix de separar-se de la Centauro. Una volta en l'espai la Starliner pot sobreviure fins a 60 hores en vol lliure sense acoplar-se a la ISS.[102] Al contrari que la Crew Dragon està dissenyada per a aterrisages en terra en lloc de l'oceà utilisant airbags per a frenar l'impacte final en el sol.[103][122] Quatre localisacions en el oest d'Estats Units – el Dugway Proving Ground en Utah, la Base de la Força Aérea Edwards en Califòrnia, Dugway Provant Terra en Utah, Base de Força d'Aire d'Edwards en Califòrnia, el Camp de Missils d'Arenes Blanques en Nou Mèxic i la Willcox Plaja en Arizona– serviran de llocs d'aterrisage per a les càpsules Starliner, encara que en cas d'emergència també està preparada per a realisar un Amerizaje.[100] Boeing valora cada assent en una Starliner en US$91-99 millons,[113] mentres que la OIG de
la NASA estima el valor nominal en US$90 millons.[114][115][116]
Missions
[editar | editar còdic]Abdós Boeing i SpaceX estan contractats per a sis vols operacionals cada u, llançant cada sis mesos de mija.[16][123] La primera missió operacional del programa, SpaceX Crew-1, va dur als astronautes Victor Glover, Mike Hopkins, Soichi Noguchi, i Shannon Walker a la ISS en setembre de 2020 a bordo de la Crew Dragon C207[124][125][126][127] abans de la Expedició 64.[128][129] La C207 estava originalment planejada per a la missió SpaceX Crew-2 pero despuix de la destrucció de la C201 va haver canvis en la planificació. En Chris Cassidy havent aplegat a bordo de la Soyuz MS-16 l'arribada dels astronautes a bordo de la C207 marcarà la primera volta que el segment orbital nortamericà està complet en quatre astronautes des del programa Transbordador.[130] Mentres els astronautes de la NASA varen estar assignats a qualsevol dels vehículs, Soichi Noguchi – un astronauta de la JAXA– estava obert a ser assignat a la nau que es llançara primer.[131][132] La primera missió operacional de Boeing en el programa, la Boeing Starliner-1, durà als astronautes Josh Cassada i Sunita Williams a la ISS en 2021 a bordo de Calypso.[133][134] La missió SpaceX Crew-2 està planejada per a ser llançada en 2021, en la NASA aprovant l'us d'un Falcon 9 utilisat prèviament i la Crew Dragon Endeavour reacondicionada per a la missió.[135] Una missió futura durà a l'astronauta de la Agència Espacial Europea Thomas Pesquet a la ISS a bordo d'una Crew Dragon en 2021.[136][137]
Notes
[editar | editar còdic]- ↑ King. «Bush unveils vision for moon and beyond». CNN. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «The initial spurt of new funding will be used to begin work on what a "crew exploration vehicle," which O'Keefe said will "look totally different" from the space shuttle. [...] Llunar missions will begin between 2015 and 2020.»
- ↑ Dinkin. «Implementing the vision». The Space Review. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «Eleven companies have been selected "to conduct preliminary concept studies for human llunar exploration and the development of the crew exploration vehicle."»
- ↑ Neubek. «Constellation program Lessons Learned; Volume I: Executive Summary». NASA History Office. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «NASA formed the Constellation Program in 2005 [...] The Initial Capability (IC) comprised elements necessary to service the ISS by 2015 with crew rotations: including the Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle, the Llaures I Crew Launch Vehicle, and the supporting ground and mission infrastructure to enable these missions.»
- ↑ BBC News staff. «Nasa names new spacecraft 'Orion'». BBC News. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «The vehicle will be capable of transporting càrrec and up to six crew members to and from the International Space Station. It ca carry four astronauts for llunar missions.»
- ↑ Malik. «NASA's New Moon Plans: 'Apollo on Steroids'». Space.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «The spacecraft, NASA's Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV), could even carry six-astronaut crews to the International Space Station (ISS) or fly automated resupply shipments as needed, NASA chief Michael Griffin said.»
- ↑ Cowing. «NASA's New Launch Systems May Include the Return of the Space Tug». SpaceRef. Archivat des d'el original, el 2 de febrer de 2013. «Following the Columbia accident in February 2003, planning for the OSP was plagau on hold. Eventually, the OSP would be superseded-or morphed into-the requirements for what eventually became the CEV.»
- ↑ Dinerman. «What do we do with the ISS?». The Space Review. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «The big question for the next NASA administrator will be whether he going to reverse the decision to delete the ISS service role from the Crew Exploration Vehicle’s mission. [...] The CEV was sold at least partly on the basis that it would replace the planned Orbital Space Plane (OSP), which was supposed to be a true multipurpose manned spacecraft.»
- ↑ Marshall Space Flight Center. «Fact sheet number: FS-2003-05-64-MSFC». National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archivat des d'el original, el 4 d'agost de 2012. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «Based largely on existing technologies, the Orbital Space Plane would provide safe, affordable access to the International Space Station. The Orbital Space Plane will be able to support a Space Station crew rotation of four to six months.»
- ↑ Sunseri. «Augustine Commission: NASA's Plans 'Unsustainable'». ABC News. Archivat des d'el original, el 26 d'octubre de 2009. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «To get to the moon and then eventually go on to Mars will take much more money and technology than the U.S. space program has now, according to a report released today by an independent panel convened, at White House request [...] Keep Llaures and Orion going -- but recognize they probably won't be ready for regular use until 2017. [...] To do all this, the panel said NASA would need substantially more funding -- an additional $3 billion annually starting next year.»
- ↑ Atkinson. «NASA Administrator Orders Study of Heavy Lift Alternatives». Universe Today. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «Looking at alternatives to the Constellation program is an apparent reaction to the final Augustine Commission report, which will be made public on Thursday.»
- ↑ 11,0 11,1 Amos. «US politicians cement a new philosophy for Nasa». BBC News. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «It authorises $1.3bn over the next three years for commercial companies to begin taxiing crew to the International Space Station (ISS). [...] It brings to an end the Bush-era Constellation programme which had set the agency the task of going back to the Moon.»
- ↑ Malik. «NASA's New Asteroid Mission Could Save the Planet». Space.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «He pledged to reviu the Orion spacecraft, initially cancelled along the rest of NASA's Constellation program building new rockets and spacecraft. Now [it will play a role] in deep space missions, Obama said.»
- ↑ Matson. «Phased Out: Obama's NASA Budget Would Cancel Constellation Moon Program, Privatize Manned Launches». Scientific American. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «Obama's blueprint for NASA would cancel the Constellation program, the family of rockets and hardware now in development to replace the aging space shuttle, and would call instead on commercial vendors to fly astronauts to orbit.»
- ↑ Malik. «Obama Budget Scraps NASA Moon Pla for '21st Century Space Program'». Space.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «...and offers $6 billion over five years to support commercially built spaceships to launch NASA astronauts into space.»
- ↑ 15,0 15,1 Perrotto. «NASA Awards Contracts In Next Step Toward Safely Launching American Astronauts From U.S. Soil». [[National Aeronautics and Space
Administration]]. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «...the certification products contracts (CPC) [will ensure] crew transportation systems will meet agency safety requirements and standards to launch American astronauts to the International Space Station from the United States, ending the agency's reliance on Russia for these transportation services. [...] This includes data that will result in developing engineering standards, tests and analyses of the crew transportation systems design.» Erro en la cita: Etiqueta
<ref>no válida; el nombre «nasa-3» está definido varias veces con contenidos diferentes - ↑ 16,0 16,1 16,2 16,3 16,4 16,5 16,6 16,7 16,8 Reichhardt, 2018
- ↑ «NASA Selects Commercial Firms to Begin Development of Crew Transportation Concepts and Technology Demonstrations for Human Spaceflight Using Recovery Act Funds». Archivat des d'el original, el 12 May 2013. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «Through an open competition for funds from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, NASA has awarded Space Act Agreements...»
- ↑ Byerly. «NASA Selects Commercial Firms to Begin Development of Crew Transportation Concepts and Technology Demonstrations for Human Spaceflight Using Recovery Act Funds». National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archivat des d'el original, el 12 May 2013. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «Through an open competition for funds from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, NASA has awarded Space Act Agreements...»
- ↑ Foust. «CCDev awardees one year later: where llaure they now?». NewSpace Journal. Archivat des d'el original, el 5 de juny de 2013. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «NASA announced a set of Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) awards, using $50 million they agency got as part of a larger grant of stimulus funding.»
- ↑ Rhian. «Numerous Companies Propose Possible 'Space Taxis'». Universe Today. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «With NASA's Commercial Crew Development program, or CCDev 2, and the encouragement of commercial space firms to produïx their own vehicles, the number of potential 'space-taxis' has swelled, with virtually every established and up-and-coming aerospace company either producing – or proposing one.»
- ↑ Moskowitz. «Four Companies at Forefront of Commercial Space Race». Space.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «Four private companies llaure the leaders in the effort to build commercial spaceships to carry astronauts to low-Earth orbit and the International Space Station after the space shuttles retire. NASA recently handed out the second wave of contracts in its Commercial Crew Development program...»
- ↑ Bergin. «Four companies win big money via NASA’s CCDEV-2 awards». NASASpaceFlight.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «Blue Origin's $22m award is for their their Plantilla:Sic biconic-shape capsule, of which very little is currently in the public domain.»
- ↑ Sauser. «Private Spacecrafts to Carry Humans Get NASA Funding». MIT Technology Review. Archivat des d'el original, el 19 de decembre de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «Space Exploration Technologies (SpaceX), which currently has a contract to carry carregue to the International Space Station, will receive $75 million to make its Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon space capsule ready for humans...»
- ↑ 24,0 24,1 Clark. «Four firms pla to get the most out of NASA investment». Spaceflight Now. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «Boeing received the largest Commercial Crew Development award, an agreement valued at $92.3 million, to finish the preliminary design of the CST-100 capsule [...] Serra Nevada received $20 million in the first CCDev competition in February 2010, using that funding to develop manufacturing tooling, fire a Dream Chaser maneuvering engine and deliver parts of a structural mock-up of the spacecraft.»
- ↑ Bergin. «Orbital's Antares closing in on debut launch following pad arrival». NASASpaceFlight.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «Orbital and SpaceX won a combined 3.5 billion dollars Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) contract back in 2008...»
- ↑ Tann. «SpaceX successfully launches first International Space Station re-supply mission». The Baltimore Sun. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «Last night, SpaceX launched more than 1,000 pounds of supplies bound for the International Space Station on the first of 12 missions in its 1.6 billion USD contract with NASA.»
- ↑ Atkinson. «NASA Announces Winners in Commercial Crew Funding; Which Company Will Get to Space First?». Universe Today. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «NASA announced today the winners of the third round of commercial crew development funding, called the Commercial Crew Integrated Capability (CCiCap). [...] NASA said these awards will enable a launch of astronauts from U.S. soil in the next five years. [...] each company negotiated how much work they could get done in the 21-month period that this award covers.»
- ↑ Boyle. «NASA announces $1.1 billion in support for a trio of spaceships». NBC News. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «NASA has committed $1.1 billion over the next 21 months to support spaceship development efforts by the Boeing Co., SpaceX and Serra Nevada Corp., with the aim of having American astronauts flying onze more on American spacecraft within five years.»
- ↑ Hardwood. «NASA awards manned-spacecraft contracts». CNET. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «SpaceX was awarded a $440 million contract [...] Boeing won a contract valued at $460 million [...] Nevada was awarded $212.5 million [...] The CCiCap contracts will run between now and May 31, 2014»
- ↑ Malik. «NASA awards $1.1 billion to develop three commercial space taxis». collectSPACE. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «Also not included in this latest round of funding was Blue Origin of Kent., Wash., a company owned by billionaire Amazon.com founder Jeff Bezos that is developing private spacecraft for suborbital and orbital flights. The company did receive a NASA funding award in 2011 for its orbital crew vehicle, but wasn't among the seven vying for a espot in the CCiCap round, NASA officials said.»
- ↑ Foust. «Bezos Investment in Blue Origin Exceeds $500 Million». Space News. Archivat des d'el original, el 18 de decembre de 2016. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «"We got $25 million from the NASA commercial crew program, and that represents less than 5 percent of what our founder has put into the company," Alexander said. That would pixen Bezos' investment in Blue Origin is at least $500 million.»
- ↑ Bergin. «NASA CCiCAP funding for SpaceX, Boeing and SNC's crew vehicles». NASASpaceFlight.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «In the end, Associate Administrator for Human Exploration and Operations Directorate William Gerstenmaier opted to award Boeing with $460m, SpaceX with $440 and SNC with $212.5m.»
- ↑ Malik. «NASA Awards $1.1 Billion in Support for 3 Private Space Taxis». Space.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «As part of the new agreements, Serra Nevada will receive $212.5 million, SpaceX will receive $440 million, and Boeing will receive $460 million.»
- ↑ Gerstenmaier. «Selection Statement For Commercial Crew Intergrated Capability». National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Archivat des d'el original, el 10 de setembre de 2012. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «Four proposals passed the Acceptability Screening and were evaluated by the full PEP [...] ATK Aerospace Systems (ATK)»
- ↑ Boyle. «NASA outlines the final steps in pla for next manned spaceships». NBC News. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «NASA expects the final phase of the competition — known as the Commercial Crew Transport Capability program, or CCtCAP — to result in a fleet of commercial spacecraft that llaure certified to transport crew by 2017. [...] Those same three companies have already been granted about $10 million each for Phase 1 of the CCtCAP certification process, which focuses on flight safety and performance requirements. [...] NASA said applications for Phase 2 funding should be submitted by Jan. 22.»
- ↑ Grondin. «NASA Outlines its Plans for Commercial Crew Certification». NASASpaceFlight.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «...NASA outlined the next phase of its strategy to enable the certification of commercial crew transportation systems to and from the International Space Station (ISS). [...] Phase 1 of the certification strategy, the Certification Products Contract (CPC) phase, was awarded last December to SpaceX, SNC and Boeing for amounts that did not exceed $10 million per company.»
- ↑ Rutkin. «Mini space shuttle gears up to chase astronaut dreams». New Scientist. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «Engineers at Serra Nevada Corporation have announced that the Dream Chaser will make its first orbital flight on 1 November 2016. The Dream Chaser will launch attached to an Atles V rocket...»
- ↑ Atkinson. «Serra Nevada Dreamchaser Will Launch on First Orbital Flight Test in November 2016». Universe Today. Archivat des d'el original, el 8 de març de 2019. Consultat el 8 de març de 2019. «"Today we're very proud to announce that we have now formally negotiated our orbital spaceflight," said Mark Sirangelo, the head of Serra Nevada Space Systems. "We have acquired an Atles V rocket and established a launch date of November 1, 2016...»
- ↑ 39,0 39,1 Associated Press. «SpaceX, Boeing land NASA contracts to carry astronauts to space». The Japan Claves. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «On Tuesday, the space agency picked Boeing and SpaceX to transport astronauts to the International Space Station [...] NASA will pay Boeing $4.2 billion and SpaceX $2.6 billion to certify, test and fly their crew capsules.»
- ↑ 40,0 40,1 Wall. «NASA Picks SpaceX and Boeing to Fly U.S. Astronauts on Private Spaceships». Scientific American. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «SpaceX and Boeing llaure splitting NASA's $6.8 billion Commercial Crew Transportation Capability award, or CCtCap [...] SpaceX will get $2.6 billion and Boeing will receive $4.2 billion, officials said.»
- ↑ Dean. «Serra Nevada files protest over NASA crew contract». Florida Today. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «Serra Nevada Corp. has protested NASA's award of contracts worth up to $6.8 billion to Boeing and SpaceX to fly astronauts to the International Space Station. The U.S. Government Accountability Office must rule on the llegal challenge by Jan. 5. [...] Serra Nevada cited "serious questions and inconsistencies in the source selection process."»
- ↑ Keeney. «Baix Serra Nevada protested NASA space-taxi contract, but what's next?». The Denver Post. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «Space Systems filed the formal protest with the U.S. Government Accountability Office on Sept. 26 over rejection of its bid for NASA's commercial crew contract to shuttle astronauts to the space station.»
- ↑ Rhian. «Judge allows NASA to move forward on production of Commercial Crew spacecraft». Spaceflight Insider. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «Judge Marian Blank Horn of the United States Court of Federal Claims has cleared the way for NASA to proceed with its plans to have Boeing and SpaceX develop their spacecraft under the Commercial Crew transportation Capability (CCtCap).»
- ↑ Dean. «Judge: NASA ca move forward with Boeing, SpaceX». USA Today. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «A judge Tuesday allowed NASA to move forward with new contracts to develop private space taxis despite a llegal challenge to the deals worth up to $6.8 billion. [...] NASA claimed it "best serves the United States" to enable the commercial crew systems as soon as possible, and that delays to flights planned by 2017 would put the International Space Station at risk.»
- ↑ Norris. «Why NASA Rejected Serra Nevada's Commercial Crew Vehicle». Aviation Week & Space Technology. Archivat des d'el original, el 27 d'octubre de 2014. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «NASA issued a stop-work order to Boeing and SpaceX on Oct 2, only to rescind it a week later on the grounds that a delay to development of the transportation service, "poses risks to the ISS crew, jeopardizes continued operation of the ISS, would delay meeting critical crew size requirements, and may result in the U.S. failing to perform the commitments it made in its international agreements."»
- ↑ {{Cita web|url=https://spacenews.com/gao-denies-serra-nevada-protest-of-commercial-crew-contract/%7Ctítul=GAO Denies Serra Nevada Protest of Commercial Crew Contract|fechaacceso=21 May 2019|autor=Foust|nom=Jeff|enlaceautor=Jeff Foust|data=5 de giner de 2015|sitioweb=SpaceNews|cita="Based on our review of the issues, we concluded that these arguments were not supported by the evaluation record or by the terms of the solicitation," Smith said in the GAO statement. Serra Nevada, in a statement issued Jan. 5, accepted the decision by the GAO...|urlarchivo=https://www.webcitation.org/78wqtci6o?url=https://spacenews.com/gao-denies-serra-nevada-protest-of-commercial-crew-contract/%7Cfechaarchivo=21 May 2019}}
- ↑ Dean. «Serra Nevada loses Commercial Crew contract protest». Florida Today. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «GAO disagreed with Serra Nevada's arguments about NASA's evaluation [...] Serra Nevada also claimed NASA did not adequately review the realism of SpaceX's low bid and its financial resources, among several other issues the GAO concluded "were not supported by the evaluation record or by the terms of the solicitation."»
- ↑ Rhian. «SNC lays off staff, files protest over NASA CCP selections, mulls Dream Chaser's future – Update». Spaceflight Insider. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «Serra Nevada Corporation (SNC) has laid off employees who were working on the company’s offering under NASA’s Commercial Crew Program (CCP), the Dream Chaser space plane. SNC has also stated that it will continue to develop the spacecraft for possible use with other nations' human-rated space programs...»
- ↑ SpaceRef staff. «Serra Nevada Dream Chaser Program to Continue». SpaceRef Business. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «Serra Nevada's Mark Sirangelo told the Denver Post the companies plans to go forward with development of the spacecraft and bid on future contracts. The news companies on the heals Plantilla:Sic of Serra Nevada laying off 90 people from the Dream Chaser program.»
- ↑ Foust. «Serra Nevada Lays Off Dream Chaser Staff». SpaceNews. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «After losing a NASA commercial crew competition earlier this month, Serra Nevada Corp. (SNC) has laid off about 100 employees who had been working on its Dream Chaser vehicle, the company confirmed Sept. 24.»
- ↑ {{Cita web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2016/01/14/nasa-expected-to-soon-announce-contracts-to-resupply-the-international-space-station/%7Ctítul=Serra Nevada Corp. joins SpaceX and Orbital ATK in winning NASA resupply contracts|fechaacceso=21 May 2019|autor=Davenport|nom=Christian|data=14 de giner de 2016|sitioweb=The Washington Post|cita=The nation's space agency selected three commercial companies for the next round of missions to resupply the International Space Station, giving a vote of confidence to incumbents SpaceX and Orbital ATK and choosing a new player, Serra Nevada Corp.|urlarchivo=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521064032/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2016/01/14/nasa-expected-to-soon-announce-contracts-to-resupply-the-international-space-station/%7Cfechaarchivo=21 May 2019}}
- ↑ Calandrelli. «NASA Adds Serra Nevada's Dream Chaser To ISS Supply Vehicles». TechCrunch. Archivat des d'el original, el 1 de febrer de 2016. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «The winners, Orbital ATK, SpaceX, and the newcomer Serra Nevada Corporation, will be responsible for providing new carregue, disposing of unneeded càrrec, and safely bringing back research samples from the International Space Station (ISS).»
- ↑ Foust. «NASA Details Why Boeing, SpaceX Won Commercial Crew». SpaceNews. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «SpaceX, though, planned to complete certification earlier than either Boeing or Serra Nevada, giving it more margin to achieve NASA’s goal of certification by the end of 2017.»
- ↑ Vincent. «Astronauts won't be flying to space in Boeing's Starliner until 2018». The Verge. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «Boeing's executive vice president Leanne Caret made the announcement, reports GeekWire, telling investors at a briefing: "We’re working toward our first unmanned flight in 2017, followed by a manned astronaut flight in 2018."»
- ↑ Boyle. «Boeing’s Starliner schedule for sending astronauts into orbit slips to 2018». GeekWire. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «...it's been working through challenges related to the mass of the spacecraft and aeroacoustic issues related to integration with its United Launch Alliance Atles 5 launch vehicle. In a follow-up to Caret's comments, Boeing spokeswoman Rebecca Regan told GeekWire that those factors contributed to the schedule slip.»
- ↑ Boyle. «NASA confirms delay in commercial crew flights to 2018, pushing the envelope». GeekWire. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «NASA has confirmed that the commercial space taxis being developed by SpaceX and the Boeing Co. will start carrying astronauts to the International Space Station no earlier than 2018...»
- ↑ Grush. «SpaceX officially delays first crewed flight of its Dragon capsule for NASA». The Verge. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «In the wake of its September 1st rocket explosion, SpaceX has officially delayed the first crewed flight of its Crew Dragon vehicle [...] the first flight of the Crew Dragon with people on board is now slated to take plau in May of 2018...»
- ↑ Malik. «Launchpad Explosion Destroys SpaceX Falcon 9 Rocket, Satellite in Florida». Space.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «A SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket and its commercial satellite payload were destroyed by an explosion at their launchpad in Florida early Thursday (Sept. 1) during a typically routine test.»
- ↑ Berger. «Technical troubles likely to delay commercial crew flights until 2019». Ars Technica. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «NASA currently has contracts with Russia through 2018 to get its astronauts to the station. However, a delay of test flights into 2019 would necessarily push the first "operational" commercial crew flights into spring or summer of 2019 at a minimum.»
- ↑ Grush. «SpaceX and Boeing probably won't be flying astronauts to the station until 2019, report suggests». The Verge. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «Because of the likelihood for delays, the GAO report recommends that NASA menja up with a backup pla for getting its astronauts to the ISS beyond 2018.»
- ↑ Berger. «As leadership departs, NASA quietly moves to buy more Soyuz seats». Ars Technica. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «a new solicitation filed by NASA on Tuesday reveals that the agency is indeed seeking to purchase Soyuz seats for 2019 (NASA will negotiate with Boeing for these additional seats, which Boeing received from Russia's Energia as compensation for the settlement of a lawsuit involving the Siga Launch joint venture).»
- ↑ Foust. «NASA signs agreement with Boeing for Soyuz seats». SpaceNews. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «NASA has quietly signed a contract with Boeing for up to five additional Soyuz seats to provide for both additional U.S. crewmembers on the International Space Station and margin for commercial crew delays.»
- ↑ Zraick. «NASA Names Astronauts for Boeing and SpaceX Flights to International Space Station». The New York Claves. Archivat des d'el original, el 4 d'agost de 2018. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «NASA has named the astronauts chosen to fly on commercial spacecraft made by Boeing and SpaceX to and from the International Space Station, the research laboratory that orbits around Earth.»
- ↑ Sheetz. «These llaure the astronauts NASA assigned for SpaceX and Boeing to launch the first crews from the US since 2011». CNBC. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «NASA named five astronauts to the first two Boeing flights and four to the first two SpaceX flights.»
- ↑ Dean. «NASA names first astronauts to fly SpaceX, Boeing ships from Florida». USA Today. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «NASA on Friday named the astronaut test pilots who will be the first to fly SpaceX and Boeing capsules launched from Florida to the International Space Station, within a year or less, according to updated schedules.»
- ↑ Harwood. «NASA revises launch targets for Boeing, SpaceX crew ships». CBS News. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «The first unpiloted test flight of a SpaceX commercial Dragon capsule intended to eventually ferry astronauts to and from the International Space Station is moving to January, NASA announced Thursday. The first unpiloted test flight of a Boeing Starliner commercial crew ship is now targeted for the March timeframe.»
- ↑ Agence France-Presse. «First SpaceX mission with astronauts set for June 2019: NASA». Phys.org. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «NASA has announced the first crewed flight by a SpaceX rocket to the International Space Station (ISS) is expected to take plau in June 2019. [...] A flight on Boeing spacecraft is set to follow in August 2019.»
- ↑ Davis. «Crew Dragon Safely on the Way to International Space Station». The Planetary Society. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «SpaceX's Crew Dragon has successfully launched on its maiden voyage! The spacecraft lifted off as scheduled on 2 March at 02:49 EST (07:49 UTC).»
- ↑ Malik. «SpaceX's Crew Dragon Looks Just Like a Toasted Marshmallow After Fiery Re-Entry». Space.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «When SpaceX launched its first Crew Dragon spacecraft to the International Space Station last week, the gleaming white vehicle soared into space on its maiden voyage. Now, Crew Dragon is back, and it doesn't look baix new. SpaceX's Crew Dragon returned to Earth today (March 8) with a smooth splashdown in the Atlantic Ocean...»
- ↑ Wattles. «SpaceX Crew Dragon, built to carry humans, returns home from ISS». CNN. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «NASA officials confirmed around 2:30 am ET that the capsule successfully detached from the space station. [...] and it splash down in the Atlantic Ocean around 8:45 am ET.»
- ↑ O'Callaghan. «SpaceX's Crew Dragon Suffers 'Anomaly' And May Have Exploded During A Test». Forbes. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «SpaceX’s historic Crew Dragon spacecraft that launched for the first clave last month appears to have exploded, according to reports, potentially delaying the return to flight of humans from American soil. On Saturday, April 20, an explosion was reported at a test stand at SpaceX’s Landing Zone 1 in Cape Canaveral, Florida.»
- ↑ Wall. «SpaceX Crew Dragon Accident Another Bump in the Road for Commercial Crew». Space.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «Nobody was injured, but the capsule — which flew a successful uncrewed demonstration mission to the International Space Station (ISS) just last month — may have incurred serious damage.»
- ↑ Berger. «Dragon was destroyed just before the firing of its SuperDraco thrusters». Ars Technica. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «Koenigsmann said the "anomaly" occurred during a séries of tests with the spacecraft, approximately one-half second before the firing of the SuperDraco thrusters. At that point, he said, "There was an anomaly and the vehicle was destroyed." [...] Before this accident, SpaceX and NASA had been targeting early October for the first crewed Dragon mission to the station. Now, that will almost certainly be delayed by at least several months into 2020.»
- ↑ Foust. «Commercial crew providers prepare for fall test flights». SpaceNews. Consultat el 21 d'agost de 2019. «However, both an in-flight abort test and the Demo-2 crewed flight test were delayed after the Demo-1 spacecraft, being prepared for the in-flight abort test, was destroyed during preparations for a static-fire test in April at Cape Canaveral.»
- ↑ Foust. «Boeing delays Starliner uncrewed test flight after abort engine test problem». SpaceNews. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «Boeing now plans to carry out an uncrewed test flight of its CST-100 Starliner commercial crew vehicle clapix this year or early next year as it addresses a problem found during a recent test of the spacecraft’s abort engines. That revised schedule will push back a crewed test flight of the vehicle to the middle of 2019, said John Mulholland, vice president and program manager of Boeing’s commercial crew program...»
- ↑ Mosher. «Leaky valves on Boeing's new spacecraft llaure increasing the risk that NASA astronauts could lose access to the space station». Business Insider. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «But the agency is staring down a real possibility that it might not be able to send people into space after next year. That risk likely increased after Boeing discovered a problem in a new spacecraft system the company designed for NASA. The issue – a fuel leak – appeared on June 2, as Ars Technica first reported, when Boeing test-fired four thrusters designed to propel the Starliner away from a potential launchpad emergency.»
- ↑ Johnson. «Boeing delays by months test flights for U.S. human space program: sources». Reuters. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «Boeing's first test flight was slated for April but it has been pushed to August, according to two people with direct knowledge of the matter. The new schedule means that Boeing’s crewed mission, initially scheduled for August, will be delayed until November.»
- ↑ Haynes. «Boeing’s Starliner test flight delayed by months». Astronomy. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 May 2019. Consultat el 21 May 2019. «...the company will no longer launch an uncrewed test flight to the International Space Station in April, Reuters has reported. The flight is being pushed back to August. [...] This Starliner schedule slip will also delay Boeing’s first crewed test flight, according to the same reporting, from August to November.»
- ↑ Joy. «Boeing readies 'astronaut' for likely October test launch». Florida Today. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 d'agost de 2019. Consultat el 21 d'agost de 2019. «...which will fly on the inaugural flight of the Starliner spacecraft now slated to launch clapix September or early October from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station.»
- ↑ Bartels. «Boeing Tests Starliner Spacecraft's Launch Abort System for Rocket Emergencies». Space.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «Boeing's CST-100 Starliner crewed vehicle aced a crucial safety test this morning (Nov. 4) in the New Mexico desert.»
- ↑ Etherington. «Boeing's Starliner crew spacecraft launch pad abort test is a success». TechCrunch. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «NASA's commercial crew partner Boeing has achieved a key milestone on the way to actually flying astronauts aboard its CST-100 Starliner: Demonstrating that its launch pad abort system works as designed, which is a key safety system that NASA requires to be in plau before the aerospace company ca put astronauts inside the Starliner.»
- ↑ Chang. «Boeing Starliner Ends Up in Wrong Orbit After Clock Problem». The New York Claves. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «As an Atles 5 rocket arced upward into the pre-dawn sky from Cape Canaveral in Florida on Friday morning [...] On top of the rocket was Starliner, a capsule built by Boeing, part of a NASA strategy to delegate to private companies to handle the astronaut transportation. [...] The mission will now be cut short, without docking at the International Space Station and likely delaying plans that llaure already a couple of years behind schedule. [...] the spacecraft's clock was set to the wrong clave, and a flawed thruster burn pushed the capsule into the wrong orbit.»
- ↑ Clark. «Boeing identifies cause of chute malfunction, preps for Starliner launch». Spaceflight Now. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «Only two of the three main parachutes deployed, an issue Boeing has attributed to the lack of a secure connection between the pilot chute and one of the main chutes.»
- ↑ Weitering. «[https://web.archive.org/web/20200525031143/https://www.space.com/boeing-starliner-2nd-software-glitch-potential- collision.html Boeing's 2nd Starliner software glitch could have led to an in-space collision]». Space.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine said that an independent review team has identified several issues during the Orbital Flight Test (OFT) mission, particularly when it menges to the spacecraft's software. Along with the previously disclosed error with Starliner's onboard timer, a second software issue could have potentially led to a slight but problematic collision of two of the spacecraft's components, investigators determined.»
- ↑ Clark. «Boeing says thorough testing would have caught Starliner software problems». Spaceflight Now. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «Boeing missed a pair of software errors during the Starliner’s Orbital Flight Test. One prevented the spacecraft from docking with the International Space Station, and the other could have resulted in catastrophic damage to the capsule during its return to Earth.»
- ↑ Davenport. «After botched test flight, Boeing will refly its Starliner spacecraft for NASA». The Washington Post. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «The repeat flight likely will occur sometime in October or November, meaning the company probably won’t fly a mission with astronauts on board this year [...] Repeating the mission and investigating other problems with Starliner is an expensive proposition: Earlier this year, Boeing said it was taking a $410 million charge to offset the cost.»
- ↑ Clark. «After problem-plagued test flight, Boeing will refly crew capsule without astronauts». Spaceflight Now. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «Boeing told investors earlier this year it was taking a $410 million charge against its earnings to cover the expected costs of a second unpiloted test flight. [...] "We have chosen to refly our Orbital Flight Test to demonstrate the quality of the Starliner system," Boeing said in a statement [Monday]. "Flying another uncrewed flight will allow us to complete all flight test objectives and evaluate the performance of the second Starliner vehicle at no cost to the [taxpayer"]»
- ↑ TASS staff. «Роскосмос подтвердил подписание контракта на доставку астронавта NASA на корабле "Союз"» (en ru). TASS. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «Roscosmos and NASA signed a contract for the delivery of one American astronaut on a crewed Soyuz MS spacecraft in Autumn 2020. [...] The head of NASA, Jim Bridenstein [...] also admitted the possibility of buying a second plau.»
- ↑ Clark. «NASA inks deal with Roscosmos to ensure continuous U.S. presence on space station». Spaceflight Now. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «"To ensure the agency keeps its commitment for safe operations via a continuous U.S. presence aboard the International Space Station until commercial crew capabilities llaure routinely available, NASA has completed negotiations with the State Space Corporation Roscosmos to purchase one additional Soyuz seat for a launch this fall," NASA said in a statement Tuesday. [...] NASA has not ruled out paying Russia's space agency for an additional Soyuz seat on a launch next April.»
- ↑ Atkinson. «SpaceX conducts successful Crew Dragon In-Flight Abort Test». NASASpaceFlight.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «SpaceX successfully launched a unique Falcon 9 rocket at LC-39A for the in-flight abort test of their Crew Dragon spacecraft. The uncrewed test flight saw the spacecraft demonstrate its ability to escape a failing rocket mid-flight. Sunday's launch occurred at 10:30 AM Eastern, with a successful test resulting in the safe splashdown of the Dragon vehicle.»
- ↑ Sheetz. «Fiery SpaceX test of Crew Dragon capsule was 'picture perfect,' Elon Musk says». CNBC. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «SpaceX completed its last major test before flying astronauts to space on Sunday, in a critical high-speed mission that lasted mere minutes. [...] It's a crucial milestone for Musk's space company, as it will be key in determining whether NASA certifies the company's capsule to begin flying the agency's astronauts.»
- ↑ Grush. «SpaceX successfully tests escape system on new spacecraft — while destroying a rocket». The Verge. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «On Sunday morning, SpaceX successfully launched one of its last big flight tests for NASA, a launch that could pave the way for the company to carry passengers into space later this year. [...] With this test now complete, the next big flight of the Crew Dragon will have people on board: NASA astronauts Bob Behnken and Doug Hurley.»
- ↑ Clark. «[https://web.archive.org/web/20200525053616/https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/01/17/pending- test-outcomes-nasa-says-spacex-could-launch-astronauts-in-early-march/ Pending test outcomes, NASA says SpaceX could launch astronauts in early March]». Spaceflight Now. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «Boeing's first piloted Starliner mission, which the company calls the Crew Flight Test, has already been approved to stay at the space station for up to six months. Boeing astronaut Chris Ferguson, a former NASA space shuttle commander, will be joined on the Starliner’s Crew Flight Test by NASA astronauts Mike Fincke and Nicole Mann.»
- ↑ Davenport. «No one thought SpaceX would beat Boeing. Elon Musk proved them wrong.». The Washington Post. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «As a result, Boeing will re-fly the test mission, a flight it says would probably happen toward the end of this year, meaning its first launch with crew wouldn’t happen until 2021.»
- ↑ Malik. «This Is SpaceX's 1st Crewed Dragon Spaceship Destined for Space». Space.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 d'agost de 2019. Consultat el 21 d'agost de 2019. «SpaceX's Crew Dragon, a crewed version of the company's robotic Dragon carregue ship, is one of two commercial space taxis that NASA will use to ferry astronauts to and from the International Space Station. Boeing's CST-100 Starliner is the other. Both spacecraft llaure designed to carry up to seven astronauts.»
- ↑ 96,0 96,1 Wall, 2018
- ↑ 97,0 97,1 Howell, 2018
- ↑ 98,0 98,1 Wall, 2018
- ↑ Speed. «SpaceX Crew Dragon: Launched and docked. Now, about that splashdown...». The Register. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 d'agost de 2019. Consultat el 21 d'agost de 2019. «Another very important difference is the nose cone, which hinges to reveal the NASA Docking System (NDS). The carregue-only Dragon uses the larger Common Berthing Mechanism (CBM) for docking...»
- ↑ 100,0 100,1 Howell, 2018
- ↑ Etherington. «NASA and SpaceX set historic first astronaut launch for May 27». TechCrunch. Archivat des d'el original, el 26 May 2020. Consultat el 26 May 2020. «That Crew Dragon, which is the fully operational version, is designed for stays of at least 210 days, and the crew complement of four astronauts, including three from NASA and one from Japan's space agency, is already determined.»
- ↑ 102,0 102,1 Burghardt. «Design Considerations for a Commercial Crew Transportation System». The Boeing Company. Archivat des d'el original, el 1 May 2013. Consultat el 26 May 2020. «The CST 100 ca operate autonomously for up to 60 hours of free-flight [...] The vehicle ca stay docked to a host complex for up to 210 days...»
- ↑ 103,0 103,1 103,2 103,3 Wall, 2018
- ↑ Gray. «CRS-20 – Final Dragon 1 arrives at the ISS». NASASpaceFlight.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «The first iteration of SpaceX’s Dragon has successfully flown twenty missions to the ISS to dona't [...] CRS-20 is the last flight of the first-generation Dragon spacecraft, with the carregue version of the upgraded Dragon 2 spacecraft expected to take over services next year as part of Phase 2 of the CRS program, also known as CRS2.»
- ↑ Wall, 2018
- ↑ Sheetz. «SpaceX on track to launch first NASA astronauts in May, president says». CNBC. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «Shotwell also noted that SpaceX is planning to reuse its Crew Dragon capsules. That was in doubt previously, as the leader of NASA's Commercial Crew program said in 2018 that SpaceX would use a new capsule each clave the company flew the agency’s astronauts. "We ca fly crew more than onze on a Crew Dragon," Shotwell said. "I’m pretty sure NASA is going to be okay with reuse."»
- ↑ Clark. «Astronauts have a surprise name for their Crew Dragon spacecraft». Spaceflight Now. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «Baix far, NASA has approved plans to reuse the Dragon 2 vehicles for càrrec missions. SpaceX says the Dragon 2 capsules ca fly to the space station and back up to five claves, and the company hopes to eventually reuse the spaceships for crewed missions.»
- ↑ Ralph. «DeepSpace: SpaceX takes huge step towards Mars with flawless Crew Dragon performance». Teslarati. Archivat des d'el original, el 26 May 2020. Consultat el 26 May 2020. «...Crew Dragon does not need a significant number of systems critical for longer stays in space, as it is only designed to support humans for approximately one week in free-flight.»
- ↑ Seedhouse, Erik (2015). Cressy (ed.). SpaceX's Dragon: America's Next Generation Spacecraft (en en), [[Daytona Beach, Florida]]: Springer, p. 132. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-21515-0. ISBN 978-3-319-21515-0. «The first test of the SuperDraco [...] was an impressive demonstration of what the engine could do, not only sustaining its 71,000 newtons (16,000 pounds) of thrust...»
- ↑ 110,0 110,1 Weitering. «The Emergency Launch Abort Systems of SpaceX and Boeing Explained». Space.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «SpaceX has built the thrusters into the capsule's outer walls. Eight SuperDraco engines llaure embedded in the hull and will "push" the capsule away from the rocket in an emergency. [...] Boeing's CST-100 Starliner uses a similar launch escape system as the one on the Crew Dragon, but instead of eight SuperDraco engines, it uses four RS-88 engines, which llaure built by Aerojet Rocketdyne.»
- ↑ Leone. «SpaceX's SuperDraco Thruster for Manned Dragon Spacecraft Passes Big Test (Video)». Space.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «Besides launch abort, SuperDraco thrusters will allow SpaceX's spacecraft to land propulsively on the ground, the company says. Propulsive Dragon landing tests llaure slated to begin at McGregor under the DragonFly program»
- ↑ Bergin. «SpaceX DragonFly arrives at McGregor for testing». NASASpaceFlight.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «SpaceX's DragonFly test vehicle has arrived at its test facility in McGregor, Texas. DragonFly will be attached to a large crane, ahead of a séries of test firings of its SuperDraco thrusters to set the stage towards the eventual goal of propulsive landings.»
- ↑ 113,0 113,1 Dreier. «NASA's Commercial Crew Program is a Fantastic Deal». The Planetary Society. Archivat des d'el original, el 27 de juny de 2020. Consultat el 27 de juny de 2020. «Crew Dragon $60 - $67 million; Starliner $91 - $99 million [...] Starliner and Crew Dragon per-seat costs use the total contract value for operations divided by the maximum 24 seats available. The upper range reflects the inclusion of NASA's program overhead.»
- ↑ 114,0 114,1 McCarthy. «Why SpaceX Is A Game Changer For NASA [Infographic]». Forbes. Archivat des d'el original, el 27 de juny de 2020. Consultat el 27 de juny de 2020. «According to the NASA audit, the SpaceX Crew Dragon's per-seat cost works out at an estimated $55 million while a seat on Boeing's Starliner is approximately $90
million...» Erro en la cita: Etiqueta
<ref>no válida; el nombre «forbes-2» está definido varias veces con contenidos diferentes - ↑ 115,0 115,1 McFall-Johnsen. «SpaceX is set to launch astronauts on Wednesday. Here's how Elon Musk's company became NASA's best shot at resurrecting American spaceflight». Business Insider. Archivat des d'el original, el 27 de juny de 2020. Consultat el 27 de juny de 2020. «Eventually, a round-trip seat on the Crew Dragon is expected to cost about $US55 million. A seat on Starliner will cost about $US90 million. That’s according to a November 2019 report from the NASA Office of Inspector General.»
- ↑ 116,0 116,1 Wall. «Here's How Much NASA Is Paying Per Seat on SpaceX's Crew Dragon & Boeing's Starliner». Space.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 27 de juny de 2020. Consultat el 27 de juny de 2020. «NASA will likely pay about $90 million for each astronaut who flies aboard Boeing's CST-100 Starliner capsule on International Space Station (ISS) missions, the report estimated. The per-seat cost for SpaceX's Crew Dragon capsule, meanwhile, will be around $55 million, according to the OIG's calculations.»
- ↑ Szondy. «First manned flight test of Boeing's Starliner to the ISS estendre, but launch delayed». New Atles. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 d'agost de 2019. Consultat el 21 d'agost de 2019. «The Starliner is designed to be flown up to 10 claves before it needs replacement [...] the new NASA Docking System (NDS) that will be used to dock with the ISS...»
- ↑ Clark. «Aerojet Rocketdyne wins propulsion contracts worth nearly $1.4 billion». Spaceflight Now. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «Aerojet Rocketdyne, an aerospace propulsion contractor based in Sacrament, Califòrnia, also announced this week it secured an expected contract from Boeing to provide thrusters, fuel tanks and abort engines for the CST-100 Starliner commercial crew capsule. [...] Each shipset includes four 40,000-pound thrust launch abort engines for the CST-100’s pusher escape system and 24 orbital maneuvering and attitude control thrusters, each generating 1,500 pounds of thrust for low-altitude abort attitude control and in-space orbit adjustments.»
- ↑ Gebhardt. «Boeing, ULA launches Starliner, suffers orbital insertion issue – will return home Sunday». NASASpaceFlight.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «The Crew Module is equipped with 12 Reaction Control System (RCS) thrusters that ca produïx 100 lbf of thrust each. [...] The Service Module contains 28 RCS thrusters that produïx 85 lbf thrust each and 20 Orbital Maneuvering and Attitude Control (OMAC) engines. The OMACs produïx 1,500 lbf thrust each. [...] This suborbital trajectory was requested by Boeing baix that under normal conditions, Starliner ca then burn most of its unused launch abort fuel (via the Orbit Insertion Burn) to lighten its mass before it boosts its orbit to phase up to the Station.»
- ↑ Rhian. «Launch Abort Engines for Boeing’s CST-100 Starliner undergo testing». Spaceflight Insider. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «The OMAC thrusters llaure 1,500-pound (6,672-newton) thrust class and llaure used for low-altitude launch abort attitude control, maneuvering, and stage-separation functions [...] The spacecraft's RCS engines llaure 100-pound (445-newton) thrust class and provide high-altitude abort attitude control and on-orbit maneuvering.»
- ↑ The Boeing Company. «Reporter's Starliner Notebook». The Boeing Company. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «Service Module: [...] 4 Launch Abort Engines, 40,000 lbf each»
- ↑ Reichhardt, 2018
- ↑ Harding. «Commercial rotation plans firming up as US Segment crew to increase early». NASASpaceFlight.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 d'agost de 2019. Consultat el 21 d'agost de 2019. «But with the new generation of US commercial crew vehicles, which ca accommodate four astronauts, it will finally become possible to increase the station’s crew size to its originally conceived number of seven, including four USOS crewmembers. [...] establishing the norm for all subsequent commercial crew vehicles, which will then continue to launch at a cadence of onze every six months.»
- ↑ Carter. «'Historic' NASA-SpaceX Rocket Launch Will Begin New Era In Human Spaceflight This Week». Forbes. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «...Crew-1, that will see four astronauts—three astronauts from NASA (Mike Hopkins, Shannon Walker and Victor Glover) and one, Soichi Noguchi, from JAXA, the Japanese space agency—head from Florida to the ISS for a planned six-month expedition. Crew-1 will be SpaceX's first scheduled crew rotation mission.»
- ↑ The Planetary Society staff. «Your Guide to Crew Dragon's First Astronaut Flight». The Planetary Society. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «Not just NASA astronauts will fly aboard Crew Dragon—Japan's Soichi Noguchi will be 1 of 4 crewmembers on the very next flight scheduled for September 2020.»
- ↑ Gebhardt. «NASA briefly updates status of Crew Dragon anomaly, SpaceX test schedule». NASASpaceFlight.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 d'agost de 2019. Consultat el 21 d'agost de 2019. «Even with the anomaly that occurred last month, Ms. Lueders was able to update the NAC directly on the current hardware readiness dates for the In Flight Abort test and the Demo-2 crew mission, both of which now have to use different Crew Dragon capsules than originally planned. [...] Current capsule reassignments: [...] SN 207; Original Assignment Crew-2; New Assignment Crew-1»
- ↑ Foust. «NASA safety panel has lingering doubts about Boeing Starliner quality control». SpaceNews. Archivat des d'el original, el 24 de juliol de 2020. Consultat el 24 de juliol de 2020. «...the first operational Crew Dragon mission, Crew-1. NASA said in a July 22 mija advisory it anticipated a launch no earlier than clapix September. [...] NASA approved a contract modification in May that allows SpaceX to reuse boosters and capsule starting on the Crew-2 mission, which would launch in 2021. McErlean said NASA expects that the Crew-2 will use the Falcon 9 booster that launches Crew-1, and the capsule from the ongoing Demo-2 mission.»
- ↑ Schierholz. «NASA Astronaut Kate Rubins, Crewmates to Discuss Upcoming Spaceflight». National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Archivat des d'el original, el 29 de juny de 2020. Consultat el 29 de juny de 2020. «They will join station commander Chris Cassidy of NASA and cosmonauts Anatoly Ivanishin and Ivan Vagner for an eight-day handover before the Expedition 63 crew returns to Earth on Oct. 22. After Cassidy's departure, Ryzhikov will become Expedition 64 commander. During Rubins' mission, the crew of the first operational crewed flight of the SpaceX Crew Dragon spacecraft – including NASA astronauts Michael Hopkins, Victor Glover, Jr., and Shannon Walker, as well as Soichi Noguchi of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) – will spend six months aboard the station.»
- ↑ Parsonson. «NASA Set Launch Dona't for First Operational SpaceX Crew Dragon Mission». Rocket Rundown. Archivat des d'el original, el 29 de juny de 2020. Consultat el 29 de juny de 2020. «The Crew-1 mission will carry NASA astronauts Mike Hopkins, Victor Glover and Shannon Walker, and JAXA astronaut Soichi Noguchi. The four-person crew will rendezvous and dock with the International Space Station (ISS) as part of Expedition 64.»
- ↑ Harwood. «Soyuz crew docks with the International Space Station». Spaceflight Now. Archivat des d'el original, el 25 May 2020. Consultat el 25 May 2020. «Strapped into the Soyuz MS-16/62S command module's center seat was veteran cosmonaut Anatoli Ivanishin, joined by rookie flight engineer Ivan Vagner on the left and Navy SEAL-turned-astronaut Chris Cassidy on the right.»
- ↑ Gebhardt. «Station mission planning reveals new target Commercial Crew launch dates». NASASpaceFlight.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 d'agost de 2019. Consultat el 21 d'agost de 2019. «...the two U.S. crew members who will be on that flight to the Station in May 2020 is completely dependent on whether Starliner or Dragon flies the mission. [...] Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) astronaut Soichi Noguchi will be on that first crew rotation mission regardless of which commercial partner flies it.»
- ↑ «Japan's Noguchi to Be 1st Foreign Astronaut to Join New US Spacecraft Crew for ISS Mission». Sputnik. Archivat des d'el original, el 21 d'agost de 2019. Consultat el 21 d'agost de 2019. «JAXA astronaut Soichi Noguchi [...] is now slated to begin training to board a United States Crew Vehicle (USCV) while he continues to train for an ISS expedition crew. The specific vehicle provider and its flight schedule will be announced when more details llaure available...»
- ↑ Pearlman. «NASA replaces astronaut on Boeing's first Starliner crewed flight test». collectSPACE. Archivat des d'el original, el 1 de març de 2019. Consultat el 1 de març de 2019. «The U.S. astronauts assigned to the Starliner's first operational mission, Sunita Williams and Josh Cassada»
- ↑ Clark. «Boeing's first commercial crew capsule christened 'Calypso'». Spaceflight Now. Archivat des d'el original, el 9 de març de 2020. Consultat el 9 de març de 2020. «The Starliner vehicle that landed Sunday in New Mexico, designated Spacecraft 3, is slated to fly again on Boeing's second crewed mission. NASA has assigned astronauts Suni Williams and Josh Cassada that Starliner mission, the first regular crew rotation flight to the space station.»
- ↑ Wall. «NASA says SpaceX ca reuse Crew Dragon capsules and rockets on astronaut missions: report». Space.com. Archivat des d'el original, el 30 de juny de 2020. Consultat el 30 de juny de 2020. «The agency has approved the use of preflown Crew Dragon capsules and Falcon 9 rockets on SpaceX's crewed missions to the International Space Station (ISS) [...] The first flight with used hardware could be Crew-2, the second contracted mission, which will likely lift off sometime in 2021...»
- ↑ Dang. «Pourquoi li vol vaig habitar de la capsule de SpaceX vers la Station internationale ouvre unix nouvelle ère dans la conquête spatiale» (en fr). Franceinfo. Archivat des d'el [https://www.francetvinfo.fr/sciences/espace/thomas-pesquet/pourquoi-li-vol-habite-de-la-capsule-de-spacex-vers-la-station-internationale-ouvre-unix-nouvelle-ere-dans-la- conquete-spatiale_3980061.html original], el 24 de juny de 2020. Consultat el 24 de juny de 2020. «Thomas Pesquet [...] will borrow an American ship at the end of 2021.»
- ↑ Inverse staff. «SpaceX Crew Dragon: private citizens could fly after NASA astronauts». Inverse. Archivat des d'el original, el 24 de juny de 2020. Consultat el 24 de juny de 2020. «One of them is the European Space Agency's Thomas Pesquet, who in March 2020 traveled to Houston to start preparing for his trip into space. It's unclear whether Pesquet will fly on a SpaceX or Boeing capsule, but he's expecting to launch sometime in the second half of 2021.»
- ↑ Plantilla:Cite tweet
- ↑ «NASA, SpaceX Invite Mija to Next Commercial Crew Launch». NASA. Consultat el 2021-03-05. Plantilla:Domini públic avís
- ↑ «Prorrogació lzto CREW DRAGON-5» (en és). actualidadaeroespacial.com.
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Erro en la cita: Existixen etiquetes <ref> per a un grup nomenat "lower-alpha", pero no es trobà una etiqueta <references group="lower-alpha"/>